6.3. Module Documentation

The specification of functions provided by a module can be found in its interface, which is what clients will consult. But what about internal documentation, which is relevant to those who implement and maintain a module? The purpose of such implementation comments is to explain to the reader how the implementation correctly implements its interface.

Reminder

It is inappropriate to copy the specifications of functions found in the module interface into the module implementation. Copying runs the risk of introducing inconsistency as the program evolves, because programmers don’t keep the copies in sync. Copying code and specifications is a major source (if not the major source) of program bugs. In any case, implementers can always look at the interface for the specification.

Implementation comments fall into two categories. The first category arises because a module implementation may define new types and functions that are purely internal to the module. If their significance is not obvious, these types and functions should be documented in much the same style that we have suggested for documenting interfaces. Often, as the code is written, it becomes apparent that the new types and functions defined in the module form an internal data abstraction or at least a collection of functionality that makes sense as a module in its own right. This is a signal that the internal data abstraction might be moved to a separate module and manipulated only through its operations.

The second category of implementation comments is associated with the use of data abstraction. Suppose we are implementing an abstraction for a set of items of type 'a. The interface might look something like this:

(** A set is an unordered collection in which multiplicity is ignored. *)
module type Set = sig

  (** ['a t] represents a set whose elements are of type ['a] *)
  type 'a t

  (** [empty] is the set containing no elements *)
  val empty : 'a t

  (** [mem x s] is whether [x] is a member of set [s] *)
  val mem : 'a -> 'a t -> bool

  (** [add x s] is the set containing all the elements of [s]
      as well as [x]. *)
  val add : 'a -> 'a t -> 'a t

  (** [rem x s] is the set containing all the elements of [s],
      minus [x]. *)
  val rem : 'a -> 'a t -> 'a t

  (** [size s] is the cardinality of [s] *)
  val size: 'a t -> int

  (** [union s1 s2] is the set containing all the elements that
      are in either [s1] or [s2]. *)
  val union: 'a t -> 'a t -> 'a t

  (** [inter s1 s2] is the set containing all the elements that
      are in both [s1] and [s2]. *)
  val inter: 'a t -> 'a t -> 'a t
end

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module type Set =
  sig
    type 'a t
    val empty : 'a t
    val mem : 'a -> 'a t -> bool
    val add : 'a -> 'a t -> 'a t
    val rem : 'a -> 'a t -> 'a t
    val size : 'a t -> int
    val union : 'a t -> 'a t -> 'a t
    val inter : 'a t -> 'a t -> 'a t
  end

In a real signature for sets, we’d want operations such as map and fold as well, but let’s omit these for now for simplicity. There are many ways to implement this abstraction.

As we’ve seen before, one easy way is as a list:

(** Implementation of sets as lists with duplicates *)
module ListSet : Set = struct
  type 'a t = 'a list
  let empty = []
  let mem = List.mem
  let add = List.cons
  let rem x = List.filter (( <> ) x)
  let size lst = List.(lst |> sort_uniq Stdlib.compare |> length)
  let union lst1 lst2 = lst1 @ lst2
  let inter lst1 lst2 = List.filter (fun h -> mem h lst2) lst1
end

module ListSet : Set

This implementation has the advantage of simplicity. For small sets that tend not to have duplicate elements, it will be a fine choice. Its performance will be poor for large sets or applications with many duplicates but for some applications that’s not an issue.

Notice that the types of the functions do not need to be written down in the implementation. They aren’t needed because they’re already present in the signature, just like the specifications that are also in the signature don’t need to be replicated in the structure.

Here is another implementation of Set that also uses 'a list but requires the lists to contain no duplicates. This implementation is also correct (and also slow for large sets). Notice that we are using the same representation type, yet some important aspects of the implementation (add, size, union) are quite different.

(** Implementation of sets as lists without duplicates *)
module UniqListSet : Set = struct
  type 'a t = 'a list
  let empty = []
  let mem = List.mem
  let add x lst = if mem x lst then lst else x :: lst
  let rem x = List.filter (( <> ) x)
  let size = List.length
  let union lst1 lst2 = lst1 @ lst2 |> List.sort_uniq Stdlib.compare
  let inter lst1 lst2 = List.filter (fun h -> mem h lst2) lst1
end

module UniqListSet : Set

An important reason why we introduced the writing of function specifications was to enable local reasoning: once a function has a spec, we can judge whether the function does what it is supposed to without looking at the rest of the program. We can also judge whether the rest of the program works without looking at the code of the function. However, we cannot reason locally about the individual functions in the three module implementations just given. The problem is that we don’t have enough information about the relationship between the concrete type (int list) and the corresponding abstract type (set). This lack of information can be addressed by adding two new kinds of comments to the implementation: the abstraction function and the representation invariant for the abstract data type. We turn to discussion of those, next.

6.3.1. Abstraction Functions

The client of any Set implementation should not be able to distinguish it from any other implementation based on its functional behavior. As far as the client can tell, the operations act like operations on the mathematical ideal of a set. In the first implementation, the lists [3; 1], [1; 3], and [1; 1; 3] are distinguishable to the implementer, but not to the client. To the client, they all represent the abstract set {1, 3} and cannot be distinguished by any of the operations of the Set signature. From the point of view of the client, the abstract data type describes a set of abstract values and associated operations. The implementer knows that these abstract values are represented by concrete values that may contain additional information invisible from the client’s view. This loss of information is described by the abstraction function, which is a mapping from the space of concrete values to the abstract space. The abstraction function for the implementation ListSet looks like this:

Notice that several concrete values may map to a single abstract value; that is, the abstraction function may be many-to-one. It is also possible that some concrete values do not map to any abstract value; the abstraction function may be partial. That is not the case with ListSet, but it might be with other implementations.

The abstraction function is important for deciding whether an implementation is correct, therefore it belongs as a comment in the implementation of any abstract data type. For example, in the ListSet module, we could document the abstraction function as follows:

module ListSet : Set = struct
  (** Abstraction function: The list [[a1; ...; an]] represents the
      set [{b1, ..., bm}], where [[b1; ...; bm]] is the same list as
      [[a1; ...; an]] but with any duplicates removed. The empty list
      [[]] represents the empty set [{}]. *)
  type 'a t = 'a list
  ...
end

This comment explicitly points out that the list may contain duplicates, which is helpful as a reinforcement of the first sentence. Similarly, the case of an empty list is mentioned explicitly for clarity, although some might consider it to be redundant.

The abstraction function for the second implementation, which does not allow duplicates, hints at an important difference. We can write the abstraction function for this second representation a bit more simply because we know that the elements are distinct.

module UniqListSet : Set = struct
  (** Abstraction function: The list [[a1; ...; an]] represents the set
      [{a1, ..., an}]. The empty list [[]] represents the empty set [{}]. *)
  type 'a t = 'a list
  ...
end

6.3.2. Implementing the Abstraction Function

What would it mean to implement the abstraction function for ListSet? We’d want a function that took an input of type 'a ListSet.t. But what should its output type be? The abstract values are mathematical sets, not OCaml types. If we did hypothetically have a type 'a set that our abstraction function could return, there would have been little point in developing ListSet; we could have just used that 'a set type without doing any work of our own.

On the other hand, we might implement something close to the abstraction function by converting an input of type 'a ListSet.t to a built-in OCaml type or standard library type:

• We could convert to a string. That would have the advantage of being easily readable by humans in the toplevel or in debug output. Java programmers use toString() for similar purposes.

• We could convert to 'a list. (Actually there’s little conversion to be done). For data collections this is a convenient choice, since lists can at least approximately represent many data structures: stacks, queues, dictionaries, sets, heaps, etc.

The following functions implement those ideas. Note that to_string has to take an additional argument string_of_val from the client to convert 'a to string.

module ListSet : Set = struct
  ...

  let uniq lst = List.sort_uniq Stdlib.compare lst

  let to_string string_of_val lst =
    let interior =
      lst |> uniq |> List.map string_of_val |> String.concat ", "
    in
    "{" ^ interior ^ "}"

  let to_list = uniq
end

Installing a custom formatter, as discussed in the section on encapsulation, could also be understood as implementing the abstraction function. But in that case it’s usable only by humans at the toplevel rather than other code, programmatically.

6.3.3. Commutative Diagrams

Using the abstraction function, we can now talk about what it means for an implementation of an abstraction to be correct. It is correct exactly when every operation that takes place in the concrete space makes sense when mapped by the abstraction function into the abstract space. This can be visualized as a commutative diagram:

A commutative diagram means that if we take the two paths around the diagram, we have to get to the same place. Suppose that we start from a concrete value and apply the actual implementation of some operation to it to obtain a new concrete value or values. When viewed abstractly, a concrete result should be an abstract value that is a possible result of applying the function as described in its specification to the abstract view of the actual inputs. For example, consider the union function from the implementation of sets as lists with repeated elements covered last time. When this function is applied to the concrete pair [1; 3], [2; 2], it corresponds to the lower-left corner of the diagram. The result of this operation is the list [2; 2; 1; 3], whose corresponding abstract value is the set {1, 2, 3}. Note that if we apply the abstraction function AF to the input lists [1; 3] and [2; 2], we have the sets {1, 3} and {2}. The commutative diagram requires that in this instance the union of {1, 3} and {2} is {1, 2, 3}, which is of course true.

6.3.4. Representation Invariants

The abstraction function explains how information within the module is viewed abstractly by module clients. But that is not all we need to know to ensure correctness of the implementation. Consider the size function in each of the two implementations. For ListSet, which allows duplicates, we need to be sure not to double-count duplicate elements:

let size lst = List.(lst |> sort_uniq Stdlib.compare |> length)

But for UniqListSet, in which the lists have no duplicates, the size is just the length of the list:

let size = List.length

How do we know that latter implementation is correct? That is, how do we know that “lists have no duplicates”? It’s hinted at by the name of the module, and it can be deduced from the implementation of add, but we’ve never carefully documented it. Right now, the code does not explicitly say that there are no duplicates.

In the UniqListSet representation, not all concrete data items represent abstract data items. That is, the domain of the abstraction function does not include all possible lists. There are some lists, such as [1; 1; 2], that contain duplicates and must never occur in the representation of a set in the UniqListSet implementation; the abstraction function is undefined on such lists. We need to include a second piece of information, the representation invariant (or rep invariant, or RI), to determine which concrete data items are valid representations of abstract data items. For sets represented as lists without duplicates, we write this as part of the comment together with the abstraction function:

module UniqListSet : Set = struct
  (** Abstraction function: the list [[a1; ...; an]] represents the set
      [{a1, ..., an}].  The empty list [[]] represents the empty set [{}].
      Representation invariant: the list contains no duplicates. *)
  type 'a t = 'a list
  ...
end

If we think about this issue in terms of the commutative diagram, we see that there is a crucial property that is necessary to ensure correctness: namely, that all concrete operations preserve the representation invariant. If this constraint is broken, functions such as size will not return the correct answer. The relationship between the representation invariant and the abstraction function is depicted in this figure:

We can use the rep invariant and abstraction function to judge whether the implementation of a single operation is correct in isolation from the rest of the functions in the module. A function is correct if these conditions:

1. The function’s preconditions hold of the argument values.

2. The concrete representations of the arguments satisfy the rep invariant.

imply these conditions:

1. All new representation values created satisfy the rep invariant.

2. The commutative diagram holds.

The rep invariant makes it easier to write code that is provably correct, because it means that we don’t have to write code that works for all possible incoming concrete representations—only those that satisfy the rep invariant. For example, in the implementation UniqListSet, we do not care what the code does on lists that contain duplicate elements. However, we do need to be concerned that on return, we only produce values that satisfy the rep invariant. As suggested in the figure above, if the rep invariant holds for the input values, then it should hold for the output values, which is why we call it an invariant.

6.3.5. Implementing the Representation Invariant

When implementing a complex abstract data type, it is often helpful to write an internal function that can be used to check that the rep invariant holds of a given data item. By convention, we will call this function rep_ok. If the module accepts values of the abstract type that are created outside the module, say by exposing the implementation of the type in the signature, then rep_ok should be applied to these to ensure the representation invariant is satisfied. In addition, if the implementation creates any new values of the abstract type, rep_ok can be applied to them as a sanity check. With this approach, bugs are caught early, and a bug in one function is less likely to create the appearance of a bug in another.

A convenient way to write rep_ok is to make it an identity function that just returns the input value if the rep invariant holds and raises an exception if it fails.

(* Checks whether x satisfies the representation invariant. *)
let rep_ok x =
  if (* check the RI holds of x *) then x else failwith "RI violated"

Here is an implementation of Set that uses the same data representation as UniqListSet, but includes copious rep_ok checks. Note that rep_ok is applied to all input sets and to any set that is ever created. This ensures that if a bad set representation is created, it will be detected immediately. In case we somehow missed a check on creation, we also apply rep_ok to incoming set arguments. If there is a bug, these checks will help us quickly figure out where the rep invariant is being broken.

(** Implementation of sets as lists without duplicates. *)
module UniqListSet : Set = struct

  (** Abstraction function: The list [[a1; ...; an]] represents the
      set {a1, ..., an}. The empty list [[]] represents the empty set [{}].
      Representation invariant: the list contains no duplicates. *)
  type 'a t = 'a list

  let rep_ok lst =
    let u = List.sort_uniq Stdlib.compare lst in
    match List.compare_lengths lst u with 0 -> lst | _ -> failwith "RI"

  let empty = []

  let mem x lst = List.mem x (rep_ok lst)

  let add x lst = rep_ok (if mem x (rep_ok lst) then lst else x :: lst)

  let rem x lst = rep_ok (List.filter (( <> ) x) (rep_ok lst))

  let size lst = List.length (rep_ok lst)

  let union lst1 lst2 =
    rep_ok
      (List.fold_left
         (fun u x -> if mem x lst2 then u else x :: u)
         (rep_ok lst2) (rep_ok lst1))

  let inter lst1 lst2 = rep_ok (List.filter (fun h -> mem h lst2) (rep_ok lst1))
end

module UniqListSet : Set

Calling rep_ok on every argument can be too expensive for the production version of a program. The rep_ok above, for example, requires linearithmic time, which destroys the efficiency of all the previously constant time or linear time operations. For production code, it may be more appropriate to use a version of rep_ok that only checks the parts of the rep invariant that are cheap to check. When there is a requirement that there be no run-time cost, rep_ok can be changed to an identity function (or macro) so the compiler optimizes away the calls to it. However, it is a good idea to keep around the full code of rep_ok so it can be easily reinstated during future debugging:

let rep_ok lst = lst

let rep_ok_expensive =
  let u = List.sort_uniq Stdlib.compare lst in
  match List.compare_lengths lst u with 0 -> lst | _ -> failwith "RI"

Some languages provide support for conditional compilation, which provides some kind of support for compiling some parts of the codebase but not others. The OCaml compiler supports a flag noassert that disables assertion checking. So you could implement rep invariant checking with assert, and turn it off with noassert. The problem with that is that some portions of your codebase might require assertion checking to be turned on to work correctly.